A Short Note on

The Development in Burushaski Orthography

Nearly seventeen decades of research on Burushaski (Bur), a language isolate, visibly expresses a proper development of Burushaski orthography. Before this, historically speaking, we have no evidence that this language ever existed in a written form, despite having dedicated vocabulary relevant to reading and writing. Though, one Bur name of mahakshatrapa ‘Dhoi Hola’ in Kharoshthi script from Hunza-Haldeikish (Dani 1985) is the sole so-far known evidence from second century AD. Therefore, this language remained purely oral even besides written Prakrit in Kharoshthi, Sanskrit in Proto-Sharada, and Sharada characters during the classical period. The history of Bur orthography, dating back to the colonial period, shows three distinctive phases of its development. First, the initial documentation phase includes the contributions with little care for Bur phonology. Second, the emergence of various standards based on Roman and Perso-Arabic scripts. Third, the phase leading towards the standard scripts in both Perso-Arabic and Roman characters along with the emergence of Burusho Maraka.y

The first and earliest record of documentation is evident in the publication of Alexander Cunningham (1854: 38, 398-418, Čašule 2020), which relates the expansion of the Dogra rule from Kashmir to Gilgit after the mid-19th century. Here, he only mentions the language of ‘Khajunah’ spoken in Hunza and Nager, placed in the category of ‘Dardu dialects’, and provides a brief list of words in Roman script, comparing all surrounding languages. He collected this information from the Wazirs of Nager and Gilgit, attending the Dogra Darbar of Ghulab Singh in Kashmir. In this initial record, no one should expect a proper standard script. Someway, he tried to write a set of vocabulary, for the first time, including arrow ‘hunz’, moon ‘halans’, brother ‘achu’ day ‘guns’, grass ‘shiqa’, hair ‘gogeyang’, honey ‘macché’, water ‘chil’ buffalo ‘hés mahés, grass ‘shika’, horse, ‘hághor’ etc.

More to this initial information was added by George Jonas Whitaker Hayward (1871), visited Yasin

two times, unfortunately, murdered at Darkut on 18th July 1870 and was later buried in Gilgit. He provides a comparative list of more than 350 Bur words of Hunza-Nager and Yasin dialects separately, also comparing other local languages, again in Roman script. In this list he used a different standard than above, such as for two ‘altazh’, five ‘tsundo’, ass ‘jakún’, bow ‘jamma’, brother ‘acho’, bridge ‘bash’, door ‘hing’, father ‘aya/tati’, flower ‘haskor/gambúri’, fowl ‘kárkamosh’, crow ‘ghán/ghámun’ knife ‘chur’ etc.

After the above preliminary documentation, further elaborated documentation and study of John Biddulph (1880: iii-xxxix) offers a better-organized investigation of this language under ‘Boorishki’. He attempts to explore its grammar based on Nager dialect, and a long list of vocabulary, where he extensively offers detailed grammar and sentence structure. This is again in a different orthography of Roman characters for Burushaski. He mentions, “As the following languages are not found in a written form, transliteration is not possible: they are, therefore, written according to simple English pronunciation, eked out with signs”. He offers a list comparable to English vocabulary and mentions Bur words, for my hair ‘ágoyiung’, to abuse ‘multsâs’, bitter ‘ghákowm’ boy ‘hillus’, care ‘shung’, day ‘gúnts’, apricot ‘J̣oo’, brick ‘dishtik’, to be broken ‘kháruss’, calling ‘kow’, knife ‘chúr’, water ‘tsil’ etc. Moreover, Leitner’s (1889) handbook on Burushaski compares the dialects of Hunza and Nager, help us to explore the dialectal differences and similarities. His writings were also on a different model in the same script, such as Bur word for arrow ‘huntze’, brother ‘atshu’, day ‘gúntz’ egg ‘tingán’ etc. However, this work becomes a base for developing the idea of its different “non-Aryan” origin, different than Dardic languages (Grierson 1919: 551, Barbour 1921). In the early half of the twentieth century, the contributions of Zarubin’s (1927) are prominent, adding more to the grammar and vocabulary of the Yasin dialect (Lorimer 1928). However, Lorimer, after 1930, the first phase of preliminary documentation ends, and the second phase of the systematic study is leading towards a standard orthography but not receiving broader acceptability. Lorimer for the first time produces three extensive volumes on Hunza-Nagir (1935-1938) and Yasin (1962) Burushaski. Lorimer’s orthography, very different than all above, even having some basic issues connected to his required training (Berger 1985), appears to be an inspiration and motivation for all later contributions. His designed letters were unique based on Roman alphabets. In this connection, Morgenstierne (1945) felt the Sanskrit inspirations in Bur for the first time. After a long gap, Edel’man-Klimov’s (1970, 1997) description is furthering previous tentative research. Besides this, a premier and short grammar on Bur in Urdu by Qudratullah Beg (1980) is an addition to the literature. Moreover, Tiffou and Pesot’s (1989a, 1989b) vocabularies are the significant contributions to Yasin Worshikwar, as known among northern and western neighbors. This is the period; the local poetry is emerging with documented text not based on the foreign model but on locally known Perso-Arabic script with required diacritic additions. In this connection, after the 1940s, two contemporary poets Nasiruddin Nasir Hunzai and Ghulamuddin Ghulam Hunzai appear with their regular presentations of their Sufi poetry. This poetry evolved in Burushaski with Perso- Arabic script based on a similar medieval Persian model that is mainly related to Ismaili tradition.

Handwritten manuscripts reached readership initially, and later in printed versions mainly after the 1960s. This poetry with huge Persian inspirations, for the first time presented in written form in the locally known Persian script, inspired the Bur speakers intensively and continued throughout this phase. The script designed by Nasir Hunzai, mainly during his exile in Chinese Turkistan with Turkish inspirations, and that of Ghulam Hunzai was having several commonalities, anyhow, both were not in agreement on some aspirated sounds. There were complexities in Nasir’s script as numerals were marking the phonetic extensions. However, Ghulam preferred to use diacritic marks same as in Arabic script.

This phase of detailed studies on various topics, such as vernacular literature, more dictionaries, and more work on grammar, translation, vocabulary, and morphological analysis, appears after 1990. However, still everyone is using his own standard script for writing either in Roman or Perso-Arabic with diacritic editions by foreign or local scholars, respectively.

The major and authoritative contributor of this period is Hermann Berger (1998), a linguistically trained scholar of Indology, who placed an extensive contribution to Hunza-Nager and Yasin dialects, dealing in grammar, texts, and Burushaski-German dictionary.

This efficient linguistic attempt, based on the original as well as on secondary data, is letting us understand more about the phonology of this language. His work in orthography being accepted by other scholars too has helped us a lot to have a standard roman script, and useful to base it on the Perso-Arabic model also.

Differently, M. Wazir Shafi (2006) and Abdul Hameed (2016) put their different proposals in the evolution of writing. Both Hameed and Shafi differently proposed English-based Roman script having little relation to earlier Hermann’s contribution. However, they informed us about additional sounds in the Yasin dialect with palatal stress on ‘l’ or ‘ll’ and noticed the sounds with aspiration before the semi-vowels ‘l’ and ‘r’ or h l and h r (Shafi 2006)

Anderson’s (1997) contributions help us to have a better understanding of Burushaski phonology, morphology, and syntax (Anderson-Eggert 2001). In addition to this, Willson’s (1999) basic Burushaski vocabulary gives a better guideline for exploring this language. However, oral texts and expressions from Hispar (Nager), with the transcription, translation, and annotation by Skyhawk (2003) are an addition to the anthropological inquiries on Bur. Burushaski-Urdu dictionary by Nasir Hunzai (2006) and the Burushaski translation of the Holy Quran (2007) Ghulam Hunzai are the major additions to the literature, besides many published and unpublished monographs. From a perspective of the historical phonology and morphology of Bur and its internal reconstruction, Berger’s (2008) latercontribution is the major addition.

Phonetic description

IPA

Cunningham 1854

Hayward 1871

Biddulph 1880

Leitner 1889

Lorimer 1927

Berger 1966

Tiffou 1989

Nasir 1960s

Ghulam 1968

Shaafi 2006

Hameed 2016

Burusho Maraka 2022

Voiceless Dental Affricate

ts

nz/ns/n

zh

ts

tz

ts

ċ

ċ

ڎ

ڎ

ć

ce

c

ڎ

Voiceless Aspirated Dental Affricate

tsʰ

ch

ts

ts

ts

ċh

ċh

ݼ

ڙ

ćh

ch

ch

ڎھ

Voiceless Retroflex Fricative

ʂ

sh/s

sh

sh

ṣ̌

ṣ

ṣ

ݽ

ݜ

śh

ṡh

ṣ

ݜ

Voiced Retroflex Fricative

ʐ

ja

J̣

J̣

ẓ

ẓ

ژ

ژ

ża

ża

ẓ

ژ

Voiceless Retroflex Affricate

ʈʂ

ch

ch

t

tsh

č̣

c̣

c̣

څ

څ

ç

ċh

c̣

څ

Voiceless Aspirated Retroflex Affricate

ʈʂʰ

cch

ch

ch

č̣

c̣h

c̣h

ڞ

څھ

çh

ċhh

c̣h

څھ

Velar Nasal

ŋ

ng

ng

ng

ng

ŋ

ṅ

ṅ

ݣ

نگ

ñ

ṅ

ṅ

نٚ

Voiced Retroflex Approximant

ya

wa

ɣ ̣

ỵ

ỵ

یٚ

ẏ

یٚ

Voiced Velar Fricative

ɣ

gh

gh

gh

gh

ɣ

ġ

ġ

غ

غ

ġ

gh

ġ

غ

Voiceless Uvular Stop

q

k

k

k

k

q

q

q

ق

ق

q

q

q

ق

Voiceless velar fricative

qʰ

kh

kh

kh

x

qh

qh

خ

خ

qh

k̇

x

خ

Voiceless Lateral Liquid (YB)

hl

hl

hl

لْ

Voiceless Alveolar Liquid/Approximant (YB)

hr

hr

hr

رْ

Velarized/Pharyngealized l “Dark l” (YB)

ll

ĺ

ŀ

ll

لٚ

A long and extensive thirty years of research work of Čašule (1998, 2001, 2003a, 2003b, 2004, 2009a, 2009b, 2010, 2012a, 2012b) provides a detailed etymological analysis of Burushaski vocabulary of different semantic fields like body-parts, rituals, shepherd vocabulary, numerals with the object to trace its Indo-European connections, especially to ancient Phrygian language, with reference to its origin. His etymological dictionary supports us in exploring the stems and roots of the words compared to other IE languages. He used Berger’s model of the script for his research throughout his contributions. Sadaf Munshi conducts the most updated catalog, online presentation of data, and research. Her Ph.D. research (2006), and her work on the Burushaski speakers who remained in Kashmir after the partition of the Subcontinent is of novel value. Our contemporary scholars working on various aspects of Burushaski may include Volker Rybatzki (2009) Piar Karim (Munshi 2012), Jan Henrik Holst (2014), and Noboru Yoshioka (2014).

References

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Barbour, P. L. (1921). Buruçaskī, a Language of Northern Kashmir. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 41: 60-72.

Berger, H. (1966). Remarks on Shina Loans in Burushaski. Shahiddullah Presentation Volume: pp. 79-88.

Berger, H. (1974). Das Yasin-Burushaski (Werchikwar). Grammatik, Texte, Wörterbuch, Wiesbaden.

Berger, H. (1985). A Survey of Burushaski Studies. Journal of Central Asia. Vol. VIII (1): 33-37.

Berger, H. and K. Jettmar (1996). Libi Kisar: ein Volksepos im Burushaski von Nager. ed. Hugh van Skyhawk and above. publisher: Otto Harrassowitz Verlag.

Cunningham, A. (1854). Ladak, Physical, Statistical and Historical: With Notes on the Surrounding Country. London: pp. 398-418 (a short word list).

Čašule, I. (1998). Basic Burushaski Etymologies. (The Indo-European and Paleobalkanic Affinities of Burushaski). Munich-Newcastle: Lincom Europa. 2001 Osnovni Burusaski Etimologii. Skopje: TRI.

Čašule, I. (2003). Burushaski Names of Body Parts of Indo-European Origin. Central Asiatic Journal. Vol. 47 (1): 15-76.

Čašule, I. (2003b). Evidence for the Indo-European laryngeals in Burushaski and its genetic affiliation with Indo-European. The Journal of Indo-European Studies. Vol. 31 (1-2): 21-86.

Čašule, I. (2004). Burushaski-Phrygian lexical correspondences in ritual, myth, burial and onomastics. Central Asiatic Journal. Vol. 48 (1): 50-104.

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Čašule, I. (2012c.) Burushaski Etymological Dictionary. A revised and updated version of Čašule (unpublished document).

Čašule, I. (2020) Origin of Burushaski. Presentation for the students of M.Phil and PhD Scholars at Taxila Institute of Asian Civilizations, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad.

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Fussmann, G. (1978). Inscriptions de Gilgit. Bulletin De L’École Française D’Extrême-Orient, 65 (1): 1-64.

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Jettmar, K. (1975). Die Religionen des Hindukusch (Religions of Hindukush). Stuttgart: Verlag W. Kolhammer.

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Lorimer. D. L. R. (1938). The Burushaski Language. Vol. 3. Oslo: Institutet for Sammenlignende Kulturforskning. H. Aschehoug & Co.

Lorimer. D. L. R. (1962). Werchikwar-English Vocabulary. Oslo: Norwegian Universities Press.

Morgenstierne, G. (1945). Note on Burushaski Phonology. Norsk Tidsskrift for Sprogviden-skap Vol. 13: 61-9.

Munshi, S. (2006). Jammu and Kashmir Burushaski: Language, language contact, and change. Submitted doctoral dissertation, University of Texas at Austin.

Munshi, S. (2012). A Grammatical Sketch of Burushaski. In progress with collaboration of Piar Karim. University of Texas at Austin.

Rybatzki, V. (2009) Türkische Lehnwörter Im Burushaski. Studia Orientalia. Vol. 108: 149–179.

Shafi, M. W. (2006). Bröshäskï Razon: A Book on Bröshäskï Grammar (In Yasin Dialect). Gilgit: Bröshäskï Literary and Culture Society.

Skyhawk, V. H. (2003). Burushaski-Texte aus Hispar: Materialen zum Verstandnis einer archaischen Bergkultur in Nordpakistan. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.

Tiffou, É. and Y. C. Morin (1989a.). Dictionnaire complèmentaire du Bourouchaski du Yasin. Paris: Peeters/Selaf.

Tiffou, É. and J. Pesot, (1989b.). Contes du Yasin. (Introduction au bourouchaski du Yasin avec grammaire et dictionnaire analytique). Paris: Peeters/Selaf.

Tiffou, É. (2000). Current research in Burushaski: A survey. History of Language [Special issue on Burushaski]. Vol. 6 (1): 15-20.

Yoshioka, N. (2014). Hunza Burushaski.トウキョウ ガイコクゴ ダイガク アジア アフリカ ゲンゴ ブンカ ケンキュウジョ: 143-177.